There are three classes of components for oxide glasses : network formers, intermediates, and modifiers.
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The network formers ( silicon, boron, germanium ) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds.
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Network modifiers were used to alter the chemical composition of the network former and reduce the melting temperature of the batch.
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The intermediates ( titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc ) can act as both network formers and modifiers, according to the glass composition.
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In the early modern era, network formers were obtained from fine or coarse sands which were usually located near the area of production or from silica based pebbles.
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When the glass contains a second network former with the same valence as silicon such as germanium, the difference in the electronegativities favors the dopant as a hole trap.
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Alternately, in chemical treatment, a glass slab treated containing network formers and modifiers is submerged into a molten salt bath containing ions larger than those present in the modifier.
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Some elements can play multiple roles; e . g . lead can act both as a network former ( Pb 4 + replacing Si 4 + ), or as a modifier.
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